Thursday, October 31, 2019

A losed-Loop Theory of Motor Learning Term Paper

A losed-Loop Theory of Motor Learning - Term Paper Example The basic aspects must be executed properly in order to enable one to focus and direct attention to other concerns. As practice continues under proper conditions, certain changes will definitely take place. Learning is conducted through distinctive stages that start with cognitive concepts to automatic performance concepts. 1. Gliding through the ice, where this was the earliest form of ice skating. This was featured in the older types of skates that were made of bones. This allowed the skaters to glide or rather slide over the surface of the ice. The principle in gliding on the bone-made skates was possible due to the larger surface area in contact with the ice, along with the thin film of water between the skates and the ice surface. 2. Cutting into the ice, which is the modern adaptation of ice skates. These skates feature a metallic blade (mostly steel), which would then cut through the ice to a certain depth which therefore aided in motion in traversing through the ice. The sharp edges in the edge of the skates aides in moving through the ice due to the fact that the sharp edges provide low friction in moving through the ice. This method though adopted in modern ice skates, was developed between the thirteenth and fourteenth century by the Dutch. The birth of ice skating dates back to the BC era, three thousand years back. As mentioned earlier, the early forms of skates were made from bones, specifically animal bones dues to the rigidity in the structure. It was later that metal was used to replace animal bones. Animal bones along with leather were used to make skates that were known as ‘schenkel’ by the Dutch, who the early inventors or discoverers were of ice skating. Ice skating then gained major popularity in the United States of America, during the civil war era (Kleim et al. 2002).  

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

The Concept of Privacy in the Workplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Concept of Privacy in the Workplace - Essay Example All the employees of the company must be given a corporate email account. The account will have a password known only to the user of the account. This control mechanism ensures that the only person that can enter the account is the employee. The concept of privacy in the workplace is a widely debated topic. A lot of employees feel that despite being paid a salary during work hours they are entitled to certain basic levels of privacy including the right to personal emails with confidential information. The company’s policy should be to allow personal emails to occur, but its content cannot be confidential due to the possibility of a traitor leaking confidential information to outsiders using the email system of the company. The email content will be audited every 30 days for quality assurance purposes. An important element of the email system of the company is the usage of email to provide customer service. All major companies provide its customers an email address for support. It takes a lot of labor to read through these emails. The company must hire an additional 50 employees to increase the speed of its email customer service support function. The new standard should be to increase the customer service response of the company to every 24 hours. To achieve this goal the customer service department must be redesigned to run a 24-hour operation composed of three daily 8-hour shifts. The email system and customer service function could be streamlined through the use of advances in information technology. The company could spend a few thousand bucks to incorporate an artificial intelligence that filters customer support emails based on necessity and customer inquiry. The system could be used to provide faster support to customers that have major issues that require immediate attention. All the emails that are sent and received by employees will be stored in a database for five years. The customer's emails the company receives will be also be saved for at l east five years. The system will automatically save the emails in a database upon being sent or received. Safeguarding the employees and customer information is very important for the company. The Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 increased the compliance costs for public companies in the United States. The stored capabilities of the system will help the company comply with the Security and Exchange Commission and other governmental agencies regulations. The internal email policy of the company includes the following stipulations. The employees of the company must answer all emails within 24 hours of receiving the email. The employees can only access the information system of the company from within the physical facilities of the company. The employees must not take any digital documents of any information. The employees can use the corporate email for personal emails, but they must realize that an audit may read the contents of the email for quality assurance purposes. The email has becom e a primary communication tool that everyone that is online uses for personal or business purposes. Due to the delicate nature of information transfer in corporate America companies have become stricter about security measures regarding electronic tools such as emails.

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Prevent A Future Crisis

Prevent A Future Crisis The downturn of the world economy, in light of the present scenario of the global financial crisis, has resulted in the epic failure of multinationals that were once deemed infallible(Ministry Of finance, 2009). The phenomenon of post-industrialism constitutes remote causes of the crisis. Paradoxically, what was once a means to move forward has now turned into a problem that has orchestrated a worldwide collapse resulting in bankruptcy of many corporations (Davis, 2009). It may be interesting to understand how this major change which affected the real economy worldwide, also contributed to the global financial crisis which occurred at the end of this decade. This essay will discuss the main causes of the global financial crisis and then propose various steps that the government of the United Kingdom could take to prevent another crisis According to the statistics, at present only a dwindling 10% of the American population is employed in the agriculture and manufacturing industry as opposed to 60% in the pre-industrial era. The gradual but consistent decline of the working population from manufacturing to the service sector has a substantial repercussion on the global economic front. Furthermore peoples ability to work and earn is no longer dependent on their working skills but more on their intellect. To satisfy the needs of cost effective manufacturing, the jobs were off shored to other developing nations (Davis, 2009). An important feature of these large manufacturers (Davis, 2009) was that they were providing â€Å"job security, health insurance, and retirement benefits† to their employees but now even these â€Å"academy employers† have begun to withhold guarantees, such as their employees pension schemes and retirees health benefits (Davis, 2009) Although it is a quite remote cause of the last financial crisis, the post-industrialisation set some of the indispensable conditions for the crisis to happen. Indeed, the employers will to â€Å"loosen the ties that bound employees to firms† contributed in a significant manner to the development of institutional investment. (Davis, 2009) The introduction of the 401(k) plan saw to the demise of the ‘defined-benefit scheme that induced loyalty among its employees. The new ‘defined-contribution plans on a superficial scale were beneficial to the employers but they further weakened employee ties, adding to the effects of earlier discussed post-industrialization. The investment risks were no longer borne by the employer but by the employees. Consequently the market saw a steady rise from 6% investment in stocks by individual households in the 1980s to an all time high of 52% investment 2001 (Davis, 2009). This substantial increase mainly benefited mutual funds (which consequently invest largely in US corporations), although it served the interests of most of institutional investors categories given their interconnection. Although this ‘roll-over of funds seemed, at first, beneficial to institutions as well as households it eventually had severe consequences with the decline of the market. (Davis, 2009) These two major economic and (subsequent) financial changes contributed to weaken the system by excessively reinforcing the links between the real economy and the financial sphere. These ever-closer ties between institutions and households, between institutions and workers or retirees and between institutions themselves explain how a little spark could result in a highly destructive fire. It seems that the sub-prime crisis can be considered as the â€Å"spark†. (Holmes and Tamara, 2009) â€Å"The Federal Reserves accommodative interest rate policy of the early 2000s is generally seen as what has caused the real estate bubble burst† (Bhalla,2009). The sub-prime problem arose from the fact that buyers without sufficient purchasing power were being funded by the greedy financial institutions because of their objective to maximize profits in the short run (Yandle, 2010). Debtors were also given options by the bank, wherein they could avoid the increase in the mortgage rate simply by refinancing within the stipulated time (Acharya et al., 2009) This, of course, was under the assumption that housing prices would continuously appreciate. However housing prices deteriorated at an alarming rate of 17% per year from the year 2008 and this continued to cause a chain-reaction of multitude of problems that were dependent on the ‘refinancing option (Bhalla,2009). The last main â€Å"ingredient† of the turmoil is directly related to the sub-prime crisis. It may be considered as the most â€Å"poisonous† one. First, because it made the crisis hard to predict and therefore hard to assess and solve. Secondly, because it played the most significant role in diffusing the crisis effects quickly and at a worldwide scale. This â€Å"ingredient† is the complicated â€Å"securitization† process According to Gerald F. Davis, the process of securitization consists of transforming assets â€Å"into securities that are traded in markets†. This practice is linked to the shift in the banking activity, from the traditionalâ€Å"originate to hold† banking model to a â€Å"originate to distribute† model. One type of security which is particularly relevant in the case of the financial crisis is mortgage-backed bonds, an asset-backed security that is secured by a collection of mortgages. The problem is that, if the mortgagor becomes insolvent the value of the security is likely to disintegrate. Securitization processes increased dramatically at the end of the 21st century, in reason of the demand generated by worldwide institutional investors (especially pension funds and mutual funds (Davis, 2009). Therefore the impact of the collapse was eventually significant as in the case of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. (Butler, 2009) Before discussing the possible steps we have to make two distinctions. First we shall distinguish between the â€Å"emergency measures† which have been implemented in order to help the economy to recover in the short term (e.g.: bail-out packages) and those which should prevent future crises. We shall focus on the second category. Another important point is that we shall only deal with the steps that should be implemented in the United Kingdom. Thus we will not expose solutions to solve the causes which originated in the United States such as the sub-prime crisis. Only the US government is competent to deal with this problem; ideas of changes include, inter alia, requiring licenses and state certification for all loan brokers and individual retail mortgage loan officers (Muolo, 2008) In order to reduce the effects of another financial crisis, the United Kingdom should concentrate their efforts on three main issues: the effects of bail-out policies, the regulation of financial institutions and of institutional investors and the regulation of non-banks. Poole argues that bail-out policies have an enabling impact on the behaviour of companies and financial institutions. According to him â€Å"every economist understands [that] a policy of bailing out failing firms will increase the number of financial crises and the number of bailouts†. (Poole, 2007). Indeed he explains that these practices give incentives for firms to â€Å"take too much risk and hold little capital† (Poole, 2007).In order to reduce the â€Å"safety net†, he proposes to diminish the insurance coverage of financial institutions. Although this proposal concerns the United States and is dedicated to the Federal Reserve System (the author is himself President of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis), it would certainly suit the UK given the bail-out policy implemented there as well (see the governments emergency  £37bn recapitalisation of the UK banking sector (Wearden and Kollewe, 2008). We have to keep in mind that the diffusion of â€Å"toxic assets† from the US to the world (including the UK) has been possible because of the trade of these assets on financial markets. The FSA may need to impose more severe rules on institutional investors and banks (in regards to their investment activities). It has been argued that risks linked to securities were sometimes difficult to assess. Moreover several banks acknowledged that they were unable to estimate with accuracy the quantity of â€Å"toxic assets† they had acquired. Stephen says that any company having excessive growth due to risky financial investments are the ones on high risk of a collapse (Schwarzman, 2008). The British regulators here have a very important role to play and they should improve their oversight over all the institutions participating in the securities market, as the US regulators should improve theirs over the bonds market (which played a significant part in the sub-prime crisis). The largely unregulated â€Å"Shadow banks† have gradually emerged as new players in the financial intermediation process (Llewellyn, D. 2009). According to Butler and Patrick (2009) the Government of UK is trying to regulate the non-banks through a process called â€Å"shadow banking† for institutions such as hedge funds, private-equity funds and insurance companies. To save tax-payers money it is necessary to have regulations in place and initiate shadow banking, however this practice has still not been implemented because of the complex mechanisms of these institutions (Butler, 2009) In conclusion, this paper discussed the various causes of the financial crisis which started way back from the post-industrial era and led to other severe problems in terms of the defined contribution by the employers. A further factor included premature acceptance and use of securitization, and shifting of risk by major financial institutions. While it is of utmost importance to know the causes of the crisis, more emphasis must be laid on the steps taken to avoid another turmoil. Despite this range of propositions, this discussion cannot omit the paramount need for more international coordination and regulation between political and financial authorities. As Acharya and others explain, â€Å"Although cross-border banking and financial flows have expanded in scale, much of bank supervision remains national† (Acharya et al. 2009). Thus, crisis at the international scale are not likely to be efficiently withstood if national regulations are not accompanied by international ones. Finally, and to refer to President Kennedys quotation, we may assert that a crisis is above all the opportunity to evaluate the dangerous nature of the current system, assessing its strength and flaws, and to improve it, when required. Bibliography: Davis, G. F. (2009). The Rise and fall of Finance and the End of the Society of Organizations. Academy of Management Perspectives, 23 (3), pp. 27-44. Ministry Of finance. 2009. Statement of G7 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors. [Online] Available at http://www.mof.go.jp//english/if/g7_090214.pdf [Accessed 16 February 2010] Butler, P. 2009. Learning from financial regulations mistakes. McKinsey Quarterly Business Source Premier issue 3. pp. 68-74. Holmes and Tamara E. 2009. Did they Cause the Credit Crisis? Black Enterprise; 39(6), pp. 74-77) Bhalla, V. K 2009. Global Financial Turmoil. Journal of Management Research 9(1), pp. 43-56 Yandle, Bruce 2010. The lost trust- The real cause of the financial meltdown. Independent Review 14(3), pp. 341-361. Acharya et al. 2009. The Financial Crisis of 2007-2009: Causes and Remedies. FinancialMarkets, Institutions Instruments. 18(2), pp. 89-137 Butler, E. 2009. The Financial Crisis: Blame Governments, Not Bankers In: Booth. P. Verdict on the Crash: Causes and Policy Implications. 1st ed. The Institute of Economic Affairs. pp. 55-57 Muolo, P. 2008. What I Would Do About the Crisis If I Ran the Regulatory Zoo. National Mortgage News, 33(3) , pp. 5-5 Poole, W. 2007. Responding to financial crisis: What role for the fed? CATO Journal, 27(2), pp. 149-155 Wearden, G and Kollewe, J. 2008.How the banking bail-out works | Business|. [Online] Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2008/oct/13/banking-banks [Accessed: 18 February 2010.] Schwarzman, S. 2008. Some Lessons of the Financial Crisis. Wall Street Journal Eastern Edition 252(107), pp. 19-19 Llewellyn, D. 2009. The Global financial crisis: The role of financial innovation In: Booth. P. Verdict on the Crash: Causes and Policy Implications. 1st ed. The Institute of Economic Affairs. pp. 129-130

Friday, October 25, 2019

History of The American Civil War Essay -- American History Civil War

History of The American Civil War The Civil War was a brutal war between the North and South of America over the issue of slavery, which was spurred on by the secession of the southern states from the Union of a America. At the time slavery was one of the main issues in America that caused a disagreement between the north and south and these disagreements about humanity and slaves added to the tension that would finally lead to the out break of war. Slavery was almost totally abolished in the northern states after 1787 when the Constitution was drafted at the Philadelphia Convention and slavery was looked upon as the ‘peculiar institution’ of the southern states, by the north. The southern states looked upon slavery as a way of life and were in no way prepared to give up what they felt was there property and a very important part of their cotton and farming production. Another implication that caused great tension between the north and south over the issue of slavery was that even though their were anti-slavery supporters in the south; some of the abolitionists of the north would write notices and say that all southerners were evil and cruel slave owners, who would treat their slaves badly. This angered the southerners who felt that the northerners were just being hypocrites and didn’t know what they were talking about, which turned pro anti-slavery southerners into stronger supporters of the south. It was thought by some anti-slavery groups in America that slavery would die out because America had in 1808 stopped the participation in the international slave trade, which meant no supplies of new slaves would be coming in. But this theory proved wrong because slavery in the south began to expand due to the great demand of raw cotton from cotton mills of the Industrial revolution from overseas places like Britain. Also the cotton-based expansion of slavery came due to the invention of the cotton gin, by Eli Whitney in 1793, which cleaned the cotton plant and refined it on a mass scale. The south started more tension over slavery when they decided they had to expand their territory westwards and gain more states because other wise they would be out voted in congress and slavery would be abolished completely, also they needed new land to replace all the over used farming land in the other southern states. The Abolitionists were another factor tha... ...o the Republicans Lincoln was a moderator but to the southerners he was an evil figure that became a sign that the union was to become radicalized. Just after the election of Lincoln South Carolina, followed by six other Southern states, took steps to secede from the Union. Although secession was illegal the union had no power to oppose it and all alternative compromises failed and so in February 1861 a new southern government was inaugurated as the, †Confederate States of America.† This new government drafted its own constitution and elected its own president, General Jefferson Davis who was a Kentuckian like Lincoln. An as Lincoln so wisely said, â€Å"A house divided against itself cannot stand†, which meant America divided in two couldn’t carry on. So that April morning in 1861 when the confederate army opened free fire on Fort Sumter a fort being held by the union on southern soil, it would be the final act that all these causes and tensions that I’ve mentioned would finally have built up to. Which would have set off one of the most horrific wars of all time. And as most Americans describe it, â€Å"It was a war that defined America’s character.† Bibliography: Encarta 2001

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Mcdonalds Annual Report

Annual Report Project 1. a) The letter to the shareholders emphasizes the growth of McDonald’s Corporation and their deepening connection with customers on a global scale. In the letter it is stated that Europe now generates about 40% of overall revenue, and that Asia/Pacific, Middle East, and Africa have doubled their income contribution in the past six years. The letter also states that the core drivers of McDonald’s Corporation’s business are â€Å"People, Products, Place, Price, and Promotion,† and that they are disciplined around building their brand holistically and enhancing the customer experience. 2.The Management’s Discussion & Analysis (MD&A) main topics are; Description of the business, strategic direction and financial performance, highlights from the year, and finally the outlook for 2012. Information of importance gathered within the MD&A includes McDonald’s affirmation to continue to be customer-focused. The ability to adapt l ocally to specific countries and cities allows McDonald’s to become â€Å"better, not just bigger† (10) giving the company the potential for increased revenue. In 2011 McDonald’s remained focused on maximizing their core business as well as driving down administrative costs.The company took in more in sales than the previous year while spending less, having an operating margin of 31. 6%. McDonald’s strives to differentiate from its competitors by sheer growth. $2. 7 billion dollars was invested primarily to open new stores and remodel existing stores. All dollar amounts expressed in millions 3. a) Sales by Company-Operated Restaurants @ 18,292. 8 b) Food and Paper @ 6,167. 2 c) Total Revenue: 12. 2% increase from previous year (24,074. 6 in 2010 to 27,006 in 2011) Operating Income: 14. 1% increase from previous year (7,473. 1 in 2010 to 8,529. 7 in 2011) Net Income: 11. % increase from previous year (4,946. 3 in 2010 to 5,503. 1 in 2011) 4. a) The amount of common stock cash dividends reported in the Consolidated Statement of Shareholders’ Equity paid out was 2,609. 7. b) No notes were provided for dividends, however there was a weighted-average assumption with expected dividend yields to be 3. 2%. 5. a) Largest current asset: Cash and Equivalents @ 2,335. 7 Largest long-term asset: Property and Equipment, at cost @ 35,737. 6 Trends: Cash and Equivalents decreased 2. 1% from previous year (2,387 in 2010 to 2,335. 7 in 2011 Property and Equipment, at cost increased 3. % (34,482. 4 in 2010 to 35,737. 6 in 2011) Accounts Receivable increased 13. 2% (1,179,1 in 2010 to 1,334. 7 in 2011) b) Current Liabilities: 18. 9% of total liabilities @ 3,509. 2 Largest Liability: Long term debt @ 12,133. 8 Accounts Payable increased 1. 8% (943. 9 in 2010 to 961. 3 in 2011) Total liabilities: 56. 4% of Total Liabilities and Stockholder’s Equity @ 18,599. 7 c) Kinds of stock reported: Preferred Stock, Common Stock, and Common Stock in Tr easury, at cost Retained Earnings: 86% of Stockholder’s Equity @ 36,707. 5 6. a) Net change in cash for 2011 was (51. 3) a decrease. ) Of the three major activities operating activities was the only to provide cash 7,150. 1, while investing activities used cash for investing 2,570. 9 as well as financing activities used cash for financing activities 4,533. 0. 7. a) The notes are divided into 12 categories which include a total of 35 subcategories b) No information about inventories was provided in the notes 8. a) Burger King’s most significant source of revenue is company restaurant revenue 1,638. 7 b) The largest expense that Burger King declares is its selling, general and administrative expense totaling 417. . c) Revenue trend for 2011 compared to 2010 is a loss of (68. 7) or 2. 9%, operating income trend is 185. 1 or 104. 3% while net income trend is 42. 7 or 94. 1%. d) Largest current asset is cash and cash equivalents listed at 459. 0. e) Largest long-term asset is intangible assets listed at 2,823. 3. f) Largest liability Burger King carries is term debt 3,010. 3. g) 2011 retained earnings was listed as a deficit of (27. 6) while total stockholder’s equity is listed at 1,049. 2 this is due to the fact the company received an additional 1190. 1 paid-in capital.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Flexible Budgets

A flexible budget is a budget statement that shows what the expected costs should have been for any level of output, so that the actual costs can be compared to planned costs for the output that was actually generated. In a flexible budget, the costs are separated into variable and fixed costs. The more information that is provided to explain variances in budgeted and actual amounts, the easier it is for management to make successful decisions about costs and expenses.A flexible budget classifies budget requests by activity and estimates the benefits arising from each activity. It presents a statement of expectations for a period of time but does not present a firm commitment. It also presents the plan for only one level of activity and does not adjust to changes in the level of activity. However it presents the plan for a range of activity so that the plan can be adjusted for changes in activity levels.Flexible budgets are one way companies deal with different levels of activity. A flexible budget provides budgeted data for different levels of activity. Another way of thinking of a flexible budget is a number of static budgets. The information is used for planning and control purposes. The flexible budget responds to changes in activity, and performance evaluation. The flexible budget uses the same selling price and cost assumptions as the original budget.Variable and fixed costs do not change categories. The variable amounts are recalculated using the actual level of activity, which in the case of the income statement are sales units. Each flexible budget line will be discussed separately. In conclusion budgets are complicated and complex tools. Within a budget there are many specific budgets which have to be examined separately. Flexible budgets helps companies set up strategy to assist in predicting positive outcomes for the business.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Pass the Chile

Pass the Chile Pass the Chile Pass the Chile By Maeve Maddox Every time I see a race called the Chile Pepper advertised in my local paper, I have the same reaction: Chile is the country and chili is the vegetable! Most dictionaries give the spelling chile as a variant of chili, but chili remains the most common American spelling. (The British spell chili with two ls: chilli.) The word chili comes from a Nahuatl word cilli. It has nothing to do with the country Chile. (For various theories as to where the country got its name, see the Etymology section in the Wikipedia article. Link below.) Spelling the country (Chile) one way and the edible (chili) another seems to me to serve a useful purpose. As the U. S. Hispanic population grows and as more Americans learn even a little Spanish, the Spanish spelling may come to look right to more and more people. Time will tell. NOTE: Some may argue that the chili pepper is not a vegetable, but a spice. Certainly that is how we use it, but the chili pepper belongs to the same plant family as tomatoes and potatoes. Etymology of the name of the country Chile See this article at YaleGlobal Online for all you could ever want to know about chili peppers. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:"Because Of" and "Due To" 60 Synonyms for â€Å"Trip†10 Writing Exercises to Tighten Your Writing

Monday, October 21, 2019

Women in Love essays

Women in Love essays D.H. Lawrence (1885-1930) was born in central England. His mother was a schoolteacher and father was a heavy drinker. Lawrence's mother died in 1910; he helped her die by giving her an overdose of sleeping medicine. E. M. Forster's claim that he was the greatest imaginative novelist, one of the greatest figures in 20th-century. "Snake" and "How Beastly the Bourgeoisie is" are probably his most anthologized poems. Women In Love, considered his best, was written during World War I. This book is a sequel to The Rainbow. Modernist form and modernist content are in this book. It is thus a major modernist text and possesses an intellectual power that few other 20th century novels can much. Women in love is about the problem of today, the establishment of a new relation, or the readjustment of the old one, between man and women. Through a series of dramatic scenes- a wedding, a water party, encounters in flats and restaurants in London, excursions to the countryside around the town Beldover, Lawrence creates a passionate, lyrical and savagely critical vision of modern society and modern values. In his intense friendship with Gerald and his marriage to Ursula, Birkin seeks out a new kind of relationships attempting to transcend the destructive 20th century conjuction of the love and death and its mechanical, soulless sexuality. The author first shows a strange a new kind relationship. Ill move on the plot of the book. Its a story of two sisters- Ursula and Gudrun. They live in a town Beldover, and their relationships dominate the novel. Ursula is a teacher and she is in love with school inspector Rupert Birkin. They meanwhile, are married and the novel continues to explore their happier relationship. The author himself is present in the novel as a character Rupert. Now, about the characters. Gerald and Gudrun, Ursula and Birkin are drawn towards each other. The main figure- Birkin, suffers from frustrated life, he...

Sunday, October 20, 2019

5-Page Essay on Abortion

5-Page Essay on Abortion 5-Page Essay on Abortion Abortion can be defined as the removal of a fetus from a pregnant female’s womb before the birth due date. Two main types of abortion commonly performed are the medical abortion and the surgical abortion. Both of these abortions require the pregnant female to be placed under medical care. Each has its own advantages and risks. A medical abortion is the kind that can be performed during the early weeks, up to the seventh week of pregnancy. It basically involves the female taking several medications that trigger the uterus to reject and expel the pregnancy tissues and the embryo. During a medical abortion, the female first takes a drug known as mifepristone, which is also commonly known as RU 486. This drug operates by making the lining of the uterus thin, therefore, making the cervix very soft. In some cases, the physician gives the female a drug known as methotrexate in the place of RU 486. This drug acts by stopping the pregnancy from progressing. The latter drug can also stop the growth of an ectopic pregnancy. If this kind of pregnancy is allowed to progress, it could rapture the uterus of the female, and therefore, threaten the life of the woman. Each one of these drugs can be administered orally or through the vagina. Two days after the administration of the drug, the female begins experiencing strong contractions within the uterus which makes her feel like she is having strong cramps. Given the many side effects of this drug, it is recommended that the female consult a doctor so the doctor can determine if the female can safely complete the abortion procedure. A surgical abortion, on the other hand, entails dilating the cervix of the female and then removing the contents of the uterus. The cervix area of a female is the narrow lower section of the uterus that joins the vaginal canal. The cervix has a small pinhole opening through which a female’s menstrual fluid flows and where sperm can travel in to fertilize the ova. A doctor who is performing a surgical abortion must first dilate the cervix to create enough space to allow the instruments to pass through into the uterus. Surgical abortions are performed at about six to seven months after the female becomes pregnant. There are several methods in performing a surgical abortion, but all abortions must be performed in a doctor’s office or clinic. Even though the later kinds of abortion are referred to as surgical abortions, women who undergo surgical abortions are not put under general anesthesia, which poses extra risks to the female. Essay writing tips: The issues involving abortions are considerable and complex; therefore, they cannot be comprehensively explored in a five-page essay. For that reason, when asked to compose a five-page essay on abortion, it is better to select a few main points concerning abortion and then explore those points in the essay. In this paper, the main ideas selected are the two types of abortions commonly performed on females who wish to terminate their pregnancies. After defining each type of abortion, the body paragraph offers a brief explanation of how each procedure is performed. Contact our professional essay writing service if you are looking for the place to have your 5-page written by highly qualified writers.

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Family Reunion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Family Reunion - Essay Example Stepping out of the car, I could see many faces, which were familiar, even though I was unable to remember the names so as to match the faces. People were mingling and probably conversing about their daily lives and their kids. Some seemed to be gossiping already. At last, the family reunion was here with us, and whether I looked forward to being here for the next one week or not, I had to get the best out of it. Inside the house, I could notice that all the doors and windows were crystal clear. A smell of fresh bed sheets and chlorine filled the air. Someone had done a commendable job in cleaning. Most of the adults talked between themselves while the children played. By this time, I had not realized that my ancestors were beneficial since I had not paid keen attention when the adults spoke. I had always wondered how my forefathers ended up in this small town in Wisconsin anyway. I decided to engage my grandfather on this topic, and I must admit that I was shocked by what I discover ed. He showed me an old picture of a man who I came to understand was the Czar of Finland, who according to my grandfather is my distant relative. My great grandfather came from Kuvlax, Finland. He was born in 1840. When he was twenty three, the Czar of Russia, Alexander I, appointed him to be the Chief Magistrate of Jacodstad. This was after Russia invaded Finland. Jacobstad used to be the second biggest city in Finland. His appointment was so as to keep the Russian’s and Finish in line. His post was the equivalent of the country’s chief of police. He later got married to a Pasalm University of Sweden graduate. They had four sons all of whom remained in Finland until their father, the Chief Magistrate, died. Poverty forced the four brothers and their mother to immigrate to the United States on September 30th, 1908. The mother and four sons settled in a small town in Wisconsin named Medford. Their house still stands up to date. One of my great uncles jokes that it has not changed any bit, only the paint has. The four brothers remained in Wisconsin state. According to my great aunt, the family experienced a few real hardships in Medford even though they were forced abandon the royal lifestyle for an average lifestyle. To support themselves, the family established a shoe making business. My great-grandfather was a craftsman in this job who retired late during his life. I met him when I was a child and although I barely remember him, he is very significant in my family history, and the same thing applies to the city of Medford, Wisconsin. Medford is not only important to me by being a home to my forefathers, but also the city’s progressive community is something which everyone wants to associate with. During my one week stay, I took my time to tour around the city and learn a few things. The city is an industrial hub within the surrounding communities. Medford provides over six thousand, seven hundred jobs in a community with a population of four thousand, four hundred people. This translates to abundance of jobs for the city residents, a phenomenon which is not common. This family reunion was characterized by late breakfasts early evening dinners or afternoon luncheons. Later in the evening people would listen to music, poetry reading, songs, recitals of history and reminiscing, honorary recognitions, educational achievements and community contributions. The older family members seemed to only highlight the family’

Friday, October 18, 2019

Abstinence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Abstinence - Essay Example Sexually transmitted diseases are common at present and it is increasing to alarming levels because of the unawareness about the seriousness of such diseases. ‘With abstinence, no barriers or pills are necessary because the person is not having sex. You don't have to be a virgin to practice abstinence. Sometimes people who have been having sex decide not to continue having sex. Even if a person has been having sex, he or she can still choose abstinence to prevent pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in the future†. Abstinence is difficult to observe in life because of physiological and psychological factors. Sexual desire is an inborn train for every living thing and it is not easy to avoid or remove it. Persons with high will power might be succeeded in avoiding sexual activities. It is difficult for the lay man to refrain from sexual activities. In order observe abstinence, developing the will power is the only way and it should be started at an early stag e itself. In other words, abstinence should be taught in school to prevent "young' pregnancies, STD's and behavioral risks

Analyst report Uniliver PLC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analyst report Uniliver PLC - Essay Example The industry has the unique quality of having a target market of the entire global population of 7.05 billion people (Census, 2012). Unilever is a company that has achieved great success in the industry with a market penetration of 28.36% or two billion customers. The firm is positioned as one of the leading companies in the industry. This report will provide an overview of the company as well as financial analysis of Unilever for the fiscal year 2011 in order to determine whether the company is worth investing ?1 million. One of the mail analytic tools used in the paper is ratio analysis. Company Profile: Unilever Unilever was founded in the 1890s, but the actual Unilever brand was not created until 1930. The company is dedicated to the nutritional and well being industry. The firm has over 400 branded products. Some of the most popular brands of the company are Dove, Knorr, Lipton, Hellmann, and Axe. The corporate vision of the company is, â€Å"Helping people to look good, feel g ood and get more out of life† (Unilever, 2012). One of the keys to the company’s success has been its product innovation. Innovation is fostered by investing in research and development initiatives. The company has a network of scientists located across the world. The company spends over â‚ ¬1 billion a year in R&D. In 2010 the company was named advertiser of the year by Cannes Advertising Awards. The products of the company are sold across 190 countries. The firm has over two billion customers worldwide. Unilever generates 55% of its sales from emerging economies including China, Brazil, India, and Indonesia (Unilever, 2012). Dove is one of the most successful brands of the company with sales of over â‚ ¬3 billion yearly. The organization has 171,000 employees. The firm believes in the use of diversity. A lot of the firm’s products target the children population to increase their quality of life. Financial Analysis – Unilever In 2011 Unilever genera te revenues of â‚ ¬46,467 million. The revenues of the company increased by 16.68% in comparison with 2009, while it increased by 4.98% in comparison with 2010. The net income of the company was â‚ ¬4,623 million in 2011. The net income of the firm went up by 0.54% between 2010 and 2011. The cash account of the company at the end of 2011 had a balance of â‚ ¬3,484 million. Unilever’s total assets at the end of 2011 were â‚ ¬47,512 million, while its current assets were â‚ ¬14,291 million. In 2011 the total liabilities of the company were â‚ ¬32,591 million. Unilever’s total equity at the end of 2011 was â‚ ¬14,291 million. A ratio analysis of the company is illustrated below: Financial Ratios 2011 Net margin 9.95% Operating margin 13.84% Earnings per share (EPS) â‚ ¬ 1.51 Return on assets (ROA) 9.73% Return on equity (ROE) 30.98% Current ratio 0.80 Quick acid ratio 0.54 Working capital -â‚ ¬3638 million Debt to equity 218.42% Debt ratio 68.60 % The net margin of Unilever during 2011 was 9.95%, while its operating margin was 13.84%. Both financial metrics measure the profitability of the business. The net margin reflects the absolute net profitability of the business. The formula to calculate net margin is net income divided by total sales (Besley & Brigham, 2000). Unilever had earnings per share of â‚ ¬1.51. The earnings per share are the portion of a company's profit allocated to each

Assignment 5 women psy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignment 5 women psy - Essay Example In particular, racial and gender differences between people are the basis for different measurements of normality, something that makes a general normalcy measurement for all of mankind difficult to ascertain. The first major issue concerning normalcy measures is the existence of several different races among people; in America, for example, there are several prominent minority groups including African-Americans, Latin-Americans and Asian-Americans. Due to the cultural and religious backgrounds of these people, they cannot properly be compared to white Americans and therefore the definition of normal must be changed to accommodate them. It is not logical to group Asian-Americans in with white Americans in terms of religious beliefs, for example, because the sheer numbers of white Americans will overpower the Asian-Americans so that the latter must be defined as deviant (John 1994). Similarly, a comparison of income between white Americans and Latin-Americans who have only recently immigrated will mark out the latter group as deviant from the norm, set by white Americans who simply have a much higher population. Normalcy in terms of ethnic groups becomes very difficult to ascertain because of cultural and initial economic differences which mark out the minority groups as abnormal. Another problem with the definition of normal is its lack of relevance between men and women, regardless of culture. For example, it may considered normal for women to be concerned about health issues like breast cancer and osteoporosis, it is likewise normal for men to be concerned with heart disease and colon cancer. Men and women do not have the same types of health risks, and so to group them together to ascertain what is the normal concern pattern will be dependent completely on the numbers of each gender questioned. Although this would technically

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Fuji Xerox Strategic Alliance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Fuji Xerox Strategic Alliance - Essay Example However, the 4:1 success ratio of strategic alliances has not deterred companies and business enterprises from continuously forming strategic alliances. The most viable reason for this continuation of forming strategic alliances despite the frequent failures may be the present era's increasingly competitive environment. Business firms and companies in every industry are searching new and more effective ways to increase and sustain their competitive advantage. In this search for new mediums to augment the competitive advantage, most of the companies have realized that, owing to a variety of reasons e.g. cultural and social differences, change in consumer's needs and wants and today's accelerating technological advances, significant improvements in performance and competitive advantage cannot be achieved alone ( Whipple J.M. and Frankel R., 1999). Per se, the traditional response of acquisition to enhance the performance and competitiveness of a company is no longer the only alternative. Strategic alliance is the new alternative that facilitates the merging of partnering companies or firms' individual strengths and expertise while also compensating for the participating companies internal resource scarcities without them having to make the required investments for the actual ownership. The most fundamental aspect for a strategic alliance to be a successful, is finding the right match in which experience, expertise, knowledge and strategic resources of the participating companies will complement each other. However, in the business arena today, the researchers have found out that newly formed strategic alliances are more vulnerable to failure than those which have lasted for some time (Lunnan R and Haugland A.S., n.d1.). According to Steve Steinhilber, the vice-president of Strategic Alliances at Cisco, "companies worldwide launch more than two thousand strategic alliances every year, about the quarter of them are complete failures and more than half never deliver as promised" (Steinhilber S, 2008). However, amidst these strategic alliance failures there is the "Fuji Xerox", the strategic alliance between the Japan's Fuji Photo Film Co. Ltd and America's Xerox Corporation, which can be said to be the most successful long term strategic alliance, till date. Hence this paper has been developed as report that envisages the evolution of this strategic alliance between Fuji and Xerox and how it became the most successful strategic alliance as "Fuji Xerox". In the course of understanding the factors that facilitated and made this venture the most triumphant long term strategic alliance, the report perhaps, will also be able to shed some light on the essential building blocks of successful alliances and how to establish them. Creating a

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Regulatory Measures Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Regulatory Measures - Research Paper Example Regulatory measures are guidelines set to control irregularities in organizations for the efficiency in their operations. The regulatory measures in the corporate world are meant to implement the ethical conduct in organizations. First is the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for organizations which involves an effective compliance program. The main objectives of the FSGO are to work aggressively to deter unethical acts, self-monitor, and police, and punish those members of organizations who engage in unethical behavior. There are four considerations made in sentencing of organizations. One is that the court orders the organization to remedy any harm caused by the offense. The second is that in the instance the organization operated primarily for the criminal purpose, fines can be high to divest all the firm assets. The third consideration is that fines levied against the organization are based on the seriousness of the offense and organization culpability. The fourth involves probation for an organization defendant to ensure there is reduced future criminal conduct.The FSGO has tried more than 280 cases. It is evident that the most frequent offenses include antitrust offenses, tax violation, fraud and environmental. Since the implementation of FSGO, 91 percent of organizations have pleaded guilty of various offenses. Statistics shows that 65 percent were placed on probation. The probation may be costly to the firms as consultants may be required by the court to improve monitoring activities.

Fuji Xerox Strategic Alliance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Fuji Xerox Strategic Alliance - Essay Example However, the 4:1 success ratio of strategic alliances has not deterred companies and business enterprises from continuously forming strategic alliances. The most viable reason for this continuation of forming strategic alliances despite the frequent failures may be the present era's increasingly competitive environment. Business firms and companies in every industry are searching new and more effective ways to increase and sustain their competitive advantage. In this search for new mediums to augment the competitive advantage, most of the companies have realized that, owing to a variety of reasons e.g. cultural and social differences, change in consumer's needs and wants and today's accelerating technological advances, significant improvements in performance and competitive advantage cannot be achieved alone ( Whipple J.M. and Frankel R., 1999). Per se, the traditional response of acquisition to enhance the performance and competitiveness of a company is no longer the only alternative. Strategic alliance is the new alternative that facilitates the merging of partnering companies or firms' individual strengths and expertise while also compensating for the participating companies internal resource scarcities without them having to make the required investments for the actual ownership. The most fundamental aspect for a strategic alliance to be a successful, is finding the right match in which experience, expertise, knowledge and strategic resources of the participating companies will complement each other. However, in the business arena today, the researchers have found out that newly formed strategic alliances are more vulnerable to failure than those which have lasted for some time (Lunnan R and Haugland A.S., n.d1.). According to Steve Steinhilber, the vice-president of Strategic Alliances at Cisco, "companies worldwide launch more than two thousand strategic alliances every year, about the quarter of them are complete failures and more than half never deliver as promised" (Steinhilber S, 2008). However, amidst these strategic alliance failures there is the "Fuji Xerox", the strategic alliance between the Japan's Fuji Photo Film Co. Ltd and America's Xerox Corporation, which can be said to be the most successful long term strategic alliance, till date. Hence this paper has been developed as report that envisages the evolution of this strategic alliance between Fuji and Xerox and how it became the most successful strategic alliance as "Fuji Xerox". In the course of understanding the factors that facilitated and made this venture the most triumphant long term strategic alliance, the report perhaps, will also be able to shed some light on the essential building blocks of successful alliances and how to establish them. Creating a

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

Challenges in Motivating Employeess Essay Example for Free

Challenges in Motivating Employeess Essay Why motivating employees is becoming increasingly challenging. The study of motivation is concerned basically, why people behave in a certain way or why people do what they do? Generally motivation can be described as the direction and persistence of action. However different items such as work environment or internal and external forces can influence the person’s choice of action. Managers face a significant challenge in finding ways to motivate their employees. Some employees can often if hard to get motivated for a job even after being employed. Maybe because there is a day job duties repletion, work condition and etc. Below I discuss some of the most significant challenges in employee’s motivation: Money is one of the major variables of satisfaction and motivation, no doubt that employees will feel less motivated if they feel their compensation is not appropriate. Paying employees less will lead to dissatisfaction and of course dissatisfied employee is an unmotivated employee. However we have to consider individual differences in the motivation. Employees have different needs and given reward do not motivate all individuals similarly. Managers should spend time necessary to understand what is important to each employee and the align goal, level of involvement and reward with individual needs. For example professionals and knowledge workers which highly trained with a college or university degree are more concerned with content of work rather than their place on the organization chart. Money and promotions typically are low on their priority list in contrast job challenge and having skill-development opportunities tend to rank high. However motivating low skilled service workers which pay levels are often little above minimum wage such as retailing and fast food is different. Many employees working in low skilled service jobs feel that they do not get the respect they deserve from their employers. Unless pay and benefits are significantly increased, high dissatisfaction is probably inevitable in these jobs. Trying to understand the needs of such employees might help motivate them better. Motivating employees in a unionized workplace environment is another challenge. For example unions have not been very receptive to pay for performance plans. They believe that differential pay to employees doing similar work can hurt corporation and lead to competition in the workplace. In other word in unionized companies providing opportunities for training and advancement and listening to employees concern all help in creating a more positive environment. On the other hand with todays globalized companies we have to consider motivation do not necessarily work equally through the world. Reward practices in different countries are variable based on cultural differences. For example countries that put a high value on uncertainly avoidance prefer pay base on objective such as seniority. Countries that put a high value on individualism place more emphasis on an individual’s responsibility for performance that leads to rewards. Countries that put a high value on human orientation offer social benefits and programs that provide working family balance, such as childcare, maternity leave and etc. Work conditions and environment is another motivation challenges. Changing the way workers are treated may boost productivity more than changing the way they are paid. An employee who feels his working conditions are unreasonable maybe unmotivated. If he feels completing a task would place him in a dangerous situation, he may not see the value doing or completing it. Other thing which could affect employee motivation is training. An employee being asked to do work which he is not qualified for or capable of doing can result in an unmotivated employee. People are generally the most motivated when their jobs give them an opportunity to learn new skills and tasks that are performed and enable them to demonstrate competence. So no doubt having an open, safe and welcoming environment is one of the most important factors. Regulation of the hours of work is another condition. If an employee is working 60 hours a week instead of the standard 40 hours, he may feel unmotivated to show up or give a full effort knowing that he will give more work and expected to stay late to finish project. Multicultural Team is another challenge in motivation. Nowadays most of the companies from big to small have multicultural team. People from diverse culture, background and beliefs. It’s clear we cannot motivate multicultural teams the same way we motivate teams with members all from same culture. Multicultural teams are differing from same culture teams in a variety of aspects. For example people from different culture have different communication style, working method and decision making practices. The expectations of team behavior vary among nationals and ethic cultures. In result managers in these companies have special challenges for motivation. Managing and motivating employees who respect different cultures can be simultaneously exciting and challenging, provide supervisors and managers understand how culture differences inspire organizational excellence, at the same time, employers encounter challenges by separating employees instead of using management and motivation techniques that focus on common traits through the workforce. In these companies as a motivating factor, money is important but only to some extent. Usually After they start getting a fairly level of compensation for their input, money stop being the greatest motivator for most people. Knowing the strength, weaknesses and performance history of each team member are very important. Some training such as multicultural awareness, team building and intercultural management workshop, motivate multicultural team members are very helpful but they must know why they are being trained. Result: All said and done working with a cross cultural team is significantly challenging as the manager must develop strategies to cope not only with differences but also motivate the team to be productive and efficient. Can a manager or supervisor â€Å"empower† an employee? Generally managers used their power as the part of their interaction with employees. In today’s workplace, there is a movement toward sharing more power with employees by putting them in teams and also by making them responsible for some of the decisions regarding their jobs. Some managers believe that to empower people is a real part of leadership as opposed to management and they give examples of way empowerment can actually set people set free to do the jobs they are capable of and also allow them to do self-managing. However managers have different concepts of empowerment, for example one group of executives believed that empowerment was about delegating decisions making within a set of clear boundaries. While another group believed that empowerment was a process of risk taking and personal growth. There is a lot of positive press on empowerment but much of the talk of empowerment, but much of the talk of empowerment, does not result in employees being empowered. Some managers have difficulties letting employees have more power. But most of the managers agree that the employees should understand how their jobs fit into the organization and that they are able to make decisions regarding job action in light of the organization purpose and mission. Empowerment can offer a number of potential benefits throughout all levels of organization. Although there is a continuing debate about the real benefits of empowerment, there appears to be a general assumption motivated staff, quality customer service and improved profits. However all the theories share a common assumption that workers are an untapped resource with knowledge and experience and an interest in becoming involved, and employers need do provide opportunities and structures for their involvement. It’s also assume that participative decision making is likely to lead to job satisfaction and better quality decision and that gains are available to employer (Increased Efficiency) and workers (Job satisfaction), in short an everyone win scenario. According to Erstad, among the many fashionable management refers to the change strategy with the objective of improving both the individuals and the organization’s ability to act. From the context of articles especially in this area empowerment is a complex process. In order to be successful it requires a clear vision, a learning environment, both for management and employees, participation and implementation tools and techniques.

Monday, October 14, 2019

An Introduction To DNA

An Introduction To DNA DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material of eve living organisms including some viruses. It is a dimer consists of two strands that immerse upon each other and appear as a double helix that are linked together covalently with each other. Each strand is made up of similar repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide composed of three different moieties,a 2-deoxyribose sugar,a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. 1.1.1 2-Deoxyribose sugar The 2-deoxyribose sugar, a major structural component of DNA is a cyclic molecule .The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings.The 5 carbon of deoxyribose sugar is attached to the 3 carbon of the next, and make a network of 3 carbon and 5 carbon.5end of a DNA molecule is characterized by a free phosphate (P) group and the 3 end is characterized by a free hydroxyl (OH) group. It lacks an hydroxyl group at the 2 position as in a ribose therefore a sugar moiety is a 2-deoxyribose. Two free hydroxyl groups are also located on the 5 carbon and 3-carbon of 2-deoxyribose sugar.These hydroxyl groups give a DNA oligomer its designation of 5 and the 3 end(usually accent as three prime end and five prime end). 1.1.2 Sugar-Phosphate backbone The 2-deoxyribose sugar and a phosphate group forms the backbone in the DNA which are highly polar and defines directionality of the molecule. The polar hydrophilic back- bone is surrounded by a core of hydrophobic bases and is important for the stability and structure of DNA. The phosphate groups have a negative charge that gives a concentra- tion of negative charge on the backbone of DNA and also makes DNA,a negatively charge 5 1 Fundamentals molecule. The charge is also neutralised by DNA-binding proteins that contain the pos- itively charged amino acids lysine and arginine, which are attracted to the negatively charged phosphate backbone. See Fig. 1.1. Figure 1.1: DNA backbone 1.1.3 Nucleic acid bases DNA contain four different nitrogenous bases that make monomer of one nucleotide different from other. These bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and gua- nine(G). The bases come in two categories pyrimidines and purines. Larger nucleic acids adenine and guanine are members of a class of doubly ringed structures called purines while the smaller nucleic acids cytosine and thymine are members of a class of singly- ringed chemical structures called pyrimidines .A six-membered ring with two-nitrogen molecule formed a pyrimidine structure whereas purine is produced by a nine-membered, ring with four- nitrogen molecule. Each unit of the ring constructing the base is numbered to for specific identification. They are arranged in a particular order along the backbone of DNA to make a long chain of varying sequence that contains the code for proteins.The sequence specifies the exact genetic instructions required to create a particular organism with its own unique traits. 6 1 Fundamentals 1.1.4 Base Pairing in DNA The nitrogenous bases are responsible to form double-strand of DNA in consequence of weak hydrogen bonds and have specific shapes and hydrogen bond properties. The three hydrogen bonds form between guanine and cytosine and then denoted as G.C or C.G,depending on which is associated with the first strand. Similarly adenine and thymine also bond exclusively by pairing of two hydrogen bonds and then denoted as A.T or T.A. This coupling up of nitrogen bases termed as complementarity.,A hydrogen bond donor need an equivalent hydrogen bond acceptor to form a hydrogen bond in the base across from it. Purines are only complementary with pyrimidines because molecules in pyrimidine-pyrimidine pairings are very far from each other that doesnt makes the hydrogen bonding to be established. Purine-purine pairing are energetically unfavourable because the molecules are too close and create an electrostatic repulsion. The only possible pairings are GT and AC. Primary and secondary amine groups or hy droxyl groups are common hydrogen bond donar while carbonyl and tertiary amines are common hydrogen bond acceptor groups. There are two hydrogen bonds between an A:T base pair. One hydrogen bond lie between the 6 primary amine of adenine and the 4 carbonyl of thymine. The other hydrogen bond form between the 1 tertiary amine of adenine and the 2 secondary amine of thymine. On the other hand,G:C base pair has three hydrogen bonds. One hydrogen bond lie between guanine with its 6 hydrogen bond accepting carbonyl and cytosine having 4 hydrogen bond accepting primary amine. The second hydrogen bond also formed between guanine on 1 secondary amine and cytosine 3 tertiary amine and the third formed between the 2 primary amine on guanine and the 2 carbonyl on cytosine. 1.1.5 Directionality The directionality of DNA is vitally important to many cellular processes. since,double helices are necessarily directional(a strand running 5 to 3 pairs with strand running 3 to 5 )and processes such as DNA replication occur in only one direction. The two DNA strands in a duplex are anti parallel and form a chemically stable structure. That is, one strand running from the 5-phosphate to 3-OH is paired with the other strand arranged with its 3-OH opposite the 5-phosphate of the first strand, and its 5-phosphate opposite the 3- OH of the first strand. 7 1 Fundamentals 1.1.6 3 end and 5 en DNA strand is inherently directional.The 3 prime end has a free hydroxyl (or phos- phate) on a 3 carbon and is called as the tail end. New nucleic acid molecules are formed by one end of 3-hydroxyl as it is ligated to the other end of 5-phosphate of a different nucleotide that make it possible to form strands of connected nucleotides.Molecular biologists can use nucleotides that has a deficiency of 3-hydroxyl(dideoxyribonucleotides) to stop DNA replication .The 5 prime end has a free hydroxyl (or phosphate) on a 5 carbon in the sugar-ring and this end is called as the tail end . If a phosphate group bind with the 5 end, ligation of two nucleotides can form, with a phosphodiester bond from the 5-phosphate group to the 3-hydroxyl end of other nucleotide. ligation can also stop if the above process is eliminated. Molecular biologists have an advantage of the above phenomenon to stop ligation of any unnecessary nucleic acid by removing the 5-phosphate with a phosphatase. 1.2 DNA-Ligand Binding The structure of DNA represents a variety of sites where ligands may interact and bind with DNA.The binding interaction between a drug and DNA often leads to a signi_- cant modi_cation of the structure of the DNA and may have an important inuence on their physiological functions associated with several biological e_ects including antivi- ral,antibacterial,antipotozoal and antitumor. Modes of Binding Because of the complex double-helical structure of DNA,drug molecule interact with DNA in a number of modes. A number of forces of varying strength involved in each interaction. Electrostatic forces with the phosphate backbone,sequence sensitive van der Waals interaction and hydrogen bonding interactions that occur between polar atom of bases and hydrogen molecules are incorporated singly or in combination.To understand the mechanism of interaction of each mode,it is best to discuss di_erent binding modes that can act on DNA. (a) External Binding (b) Intercalators (c) Groove binding (i) Major groove binders (ii)Minor groove binders External Binding This type of binding results due to electrostatic forces applied to the negatively charge phosphodiester group along the backbone of DNA for cationic molecule.Ligand charge, hydrophobicity and size a_ect on electrostatic interactions.External binding may also be due to either covalent or non-covalent interactions.This mode of binding is characteristics for major groocould potentially be sampled during simulations where the charge and shape of helical molecules are both changed. Intercalators An important class of molecules that binds to DNA are intercalators,which have been extensively used as a anti-cancer drug.Intercalation occurs due to immersion of a at aromatic drug molecule between nucleic bases contributes to unwind DNA helix(67).The interaction between a positively charged intercalator and a negatively charged DNA can be quite strong and form complex through electrostatic forces.Energy consumed to unstacked the nucleic acid bases which forms a gap between neighbouring base pairs into which the intercalator can _t easily.Because of small binding site,they have a little sequence selectivity and many known intercalators shows limited selectivity for GC base pairs such as ethidium bromide which has a high a_nity towards GC site.Several other drugs such as propidium,proavin, anti-tumor drugs adriamycin and actinomycin D intercalate with DNA. Groove Binders Smaller ligands preferentially binds to minor groove region whereas proteins and other large molecules speci_cally _ts into the major groove region of DNA. They have crescent -shaped conformation due to presence of two or more than two aromatic rings that gives a conformational exibility to the molecule and makes it perfect to _t in the groove. They also possess some functional group that forms hydrogen bonds at lower most part of DNA bases.They perfectly accommodate in the AT rich regions but some known groove binders show little preference towards GC site. Major Groove binders Presence of number of hydrogen bonds on the DNA major groove enhance its recognition potential. Major groove speci_c compounds are alkylating and methylating agents and and N 7 position of guanine in the major groove take part in interaction.one of the most common example is Cis platin which is a well known anti cancer drug. Minor Groove binders The most widely studied DNA interacting agents are minor groove binders that occurs naturally and also synthesize according to their sequence speci_c properties as they have pronounced binding a_nity towards AT rich groove.AT binding site is more thinner and deeper than GC so that all heteroaromatic rings such as furan,pyrole,benzene and Imidazole of minor groove binders twisted and _t better into AT site by applying van der waals force.Hydrogen bonds of bound molecule attached to the AT base pairs to the C-2 carbonyl oxygen of thymine or N-3 nitrogen of adenine.GC base pairs also contain same functional groups but a steric block form by amino group of guanine in GC locations which causes hinderence to the formation of hydrogen bond on guanine at N-3 position and on cytosine at O-2 cabonyl position,prohibiting vad derWaal forces and inhibit penetration of small molecules at GC sites of minor groove.AT site selectivity for positively charged minor groove binders also enhanced due to high negative electrostatic potential as compared to GC site. A number of experimental studies shows that minor groove of B type of DNA duplexes more suitable for binding of small molecules most often with Dickerson-Drew sequence d(CGCGAATTCGCG) and also similar such as d(CGCAAATTTGCG). 1.3.1 Berenil X-ray crystallography proof complex formation of berenil with dodecanucleotides,i.e. d(CGCGAATTCGCG) and d(CGCAAATTTGCG)which in turn shows its preference of binding with AT rich site of DNA minor groove and reside between three (AAT) or four(AATT) base pairs. A number of research on berenil also con_rm its weak interac- tion and intercalating behavior.Hydrogen bonds are also formed between the amidinium groups and adenine N-3 or thymine O2 atoms on reverse strands of a double helical DNA oligonucleotide.Berenil is a curve shape drug which match the helical structure of DNA minor groove. 1.3.2 Pentamidine One of the most clinically important drug,pentamidine is a synthetic antimicrobial com- pound also known aspentamidine (1,5-bis(4-amidinophenoxy)pentane,among all the mi- nor groove binders.It has been use as a secondary drug for treating aids related P.carinii pneumonia.Foot printing and X-ray crystallography shows its pronounced attachment to DNA sites which has minimum four to _ve successive AT base pairs with the charged amidinium group shows hydrogen bonding to O2 of thymine or N3 of adenine on oppo- site DNA strands. It contains two phenyl rings that are twisted after binding with the minor groove by 35ÂÂ ° with respect to each other by van der Waals forces. 1.3.3 DAPI DAPI also called 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole(DAPI) is a synthetic,unfused aromatic compound is widely used in molecular biology as a uorochrome on binding upon AT site of minor groove binder as well as an intercalating drug.upon binding to GC rich sequence without showing any property of uorescence.X-ray structure of DAPI with d(CGCGAATTCGCG)exhibited that the drug span three base pairs and also give a clear picture of parallel attachment of phenyl and indole rings to the minor groove walls of DNA. |||||||| 1.4 UV-Visible Spectroscopy Spectroscopy is a valuable tool in the study of intermolecular interactions. It is a well developed routine technique and plays an important role in analytical chemistry as well as it has widespread application in physics and life sciences. It deals with the mea- surement of the absorption of radiations in the ultraviolet and visible region of spec- trum.Spectroscopic techniques form the largest and the most important single group of techniques used in analytical chemistry,and provide a wide range of quantitative and qualitative information. All spectroscopic techniques depend on the emission or ab- sorption of electromagnetic radiations and used to determine the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In order to understand these techniques,it is necessary to have some knowledge about properties of electromagnetic radiations and the nature of atomic and molecular energy. The ultraviolet region extends from 10 to 400nm.It is subdivided into near ultraviolet region (200 to 400nm) and the far or vacuum ultraviolet region(10 to 200 nm).The visible region extends from 400 to 800 nm. 1.4.1 Electromagnetic radiations Electromagnetic radiations are produced by the oscillation of electric charge and mag- netic _eld residing on the atom and has its origins in atomic and molecular processes. It vibrates perpendicular to the direction of propagation with a wave motion and can travel in space and does not need a medium like air or water to travel through. There are various forms of electromagnetic radiations e.g. visible,ultraviolet,infra-red, X-rays,microwaves and cosmic rays. They are characterised by frequencies,wavelength or wave numbers. The most familiar form of electromagnetic radiations is visible light which forms only a small portion of full electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic spectrum A plot which shows a number of absorption bands with respect to energy versus wave- length has some properties yield various information and is broken into several regions called as Electromagnetic Spectrum.Di_erent regions of the electromagnetic spectrum provide di_erent kinds of information as a result of interactions. Electromagnetic spec- trum covers a very wide range of electromagnetic radiation that starts from gamma rays and ends on to radio waves. The boundaries between the regions are approximate and the molecular process associated with each region are quite di_erent.The regions in increasing order of frequency are 1/ Radio frequency region ;Nuclear magnetic resonance and electron spin resonance spectroscopy.The energy changes with change in direction of spin of a nucleus and elec- tron. 2/ Micro wave region:Rotational spectroscopy .Change in energy arise from transi- tions to higher energy associated with change in the rotational quantum number of the molecule. 3/Infra-red region:Vibrational spectroscopy The energy changes associated with transitions between vibrational levels of molecules. 4/Vis- ible and Ultraviolet region:Electronic spectroscopy The energy changes accom- pained with valence electrons of molecules. 5/X-ray region: inner electrons of an atom or a molecule invole in order to change energy of molecule. 6/ X-ray region: nuclear excitations necessary for an enegy change. 1.4.2 Law of molecular Absorption:Beer-Lambert law All spectrophotometric methods that measure concentration in terms of absorbance,including detection of proteins and nucleic acids,determine molar absorptivity of metal com- plex,various enzyme essay,describe attenuation of solar or stellar radiation and di_er- ent metabolites based upon two basic rules,which combinely spoken as Beer-Lambert law.This law was basically originate by a French mathematician Lambert,which states that the function of light absorbed by a transparent medium s independent of the inci- dent light assing through it.This shows that logarithm of the decrease in light intensity along the light path with respect to thickness of medium which can be written as follow log10(I0/I) = kl where IÂÂ ° is incident light intensity,I is light path length,k is a medium constant which is further interpret by a Beer,a German Physicist in the same year states that the amountof light absorbed is proportional to the number of molecules of the chromophore through which the light passes.One can also says that constant K is directly proportional to the chromophore concentration i.e. K=eC,e is the molar absorptivity of chromophore and is equal to absorption of 1M of solution at a path length of 1 cm and their unit is M-1cm-1.Now,combinely Lambert-Beer law presented as A = lC, whereby,the term log10(I0/I) is re_ered as absorbance(A),l is the thickness of solution and E is the molar absorption coe_cient. 1.4.3 Electonic transitions in Nucleic Acids Absorption or emission of radiations in nucleic acid causes di_erent types of transitions in UV-visible spectral regions and appear from n-pi* and pi -pi* transitions of purine and pyramidine bases. -* transition Large amount of energy required for the shifting of an electron from a bonding molec- ular orbital to a * antibonding molecular orbital in the UV region.Unsaturated hydro- carbons shows this type of transition and being transprent in the near UV such as methane,heptane and cyclohexane that shows maximum absorbance below 200 nm due to the fact that absorbance is equal to 1 for a thickness of 1 cm below 200nm. Similarly, water in the near UV(A=0.01 for 1cm ,at lambda =190nm)is transparent due to the presence of -* and n-* transitions. n- *transition This type of transition usually occur in compounds having lone pair of electrons and required energy lower than -* transition for the promotion of an n electron from an atom to an * molecular orbital.Moderate wavelength range for this transition is 150 to 250 nm as 180nm for alcohols,near 190nm for ethers or halogen derivatives and in the region of 220nm for amines. *transition Most of the organic compounds have a conjugate system and shows -* transitions with an intense strong absorption band occuring anywhere in the near UV region which depends upon the presence of heteroatoms substituents.These compounds also shows a slightly blue and red shift with respect to its polarity. n- *transition These bands are called forbidden bands having a low molar absorptivity less than 100 and originate from promotion of electron from a non bonding molecular orbital to an anti-bonding *orbital.This transition is more pronounced in molecules having a hetero atom with a lone pair of electron i.e.carbonyl which requires low energy and occur in the regions from 270 to 300 nm. d-d transition electrons placed in incompletely _lled d orbitals of most of the inorganic salts are re- sponsible for transitions of weak absorption and also color and located in the visible region..That is why the solutions of metallic salts of titanium or copper are blue,while potassium permeganate yeilds violet solutions, and so on. 1.4.4 Chemical shift Bathochromic shift change in max to longer wavelength(lower frequency)also change absorption,reectance transmittance or emission spectrum of a molecule mostly due to substitution or solvent e_ect i.e change in polarity of solvent called as bathochromic shift or red shift.Solvent e_ect is weak in less polar compounds as compared to polar one which can stabilise excited form,favours transition and causes a change in wavelength towards longer side. Hypsochromic shift The opposite e_ect of bathochromic shift also called as blue shift as max shift towards the blue end of spectrum.Unbonded electron pair lowers the energy of the n-orbital and increased solvation causes hysochromic shift.Mostly polar solvents such as water and alcohol have pronounce e_ect of hypsochromism due to broad hydrogen bonding between protons and the non-bonded electron pair during solvation. Hypochromic shift reduction in the intensity of uv light without any change in wavelength called as hypochormic e_ect which caused by the entry of an auxochrome which distrots the chromophore.For example ,biphenyl shows lAMDAmax 252nm,Emax19,000,whereas 2,2-dimethylbiphenyl shows Lambda max 270nm,Emax 800. Hyperchromic shift This e_ect leads to an increase in absorption of UV light at same wavelength due to appearance of an au that causes hyperchromic shift.For example,benzene shows B-band at 256nm,Emax 200,whereas aniline shows B-band AT 280nm,Emax 1430.The increase of 1230 in the value Emax of aniline compared to that of benzene is due to the hyperchromic e_ect of the auxochrome NH2. 1.4.5 Chromophore groups Organic compound mostly containing double bond is responsible to produce color and absorption of ultraviolet or visible radiations as single bond is not enough to do that but if many are present in conjugations,sharp color can produce. A single functional group or a collection of functional groups also capable for absorption and they also act as a chromophore. A complex molecule can contain more than one chromophore so the e_ect of conjugation on the chromophore is to shift the maximum absorption to a longer wavelength .i.e. a bathochromic shift or red shift appear with an increase in absorption intensity and the spectrum is strongly upset with respect to the superimposing e_ects of random chromophores. The more the number of carbon atoms on which the conjugated system is spreaded,the more the decrement in the di_erence between energy levels.and accounts large bathchromic e_ect. A very simple spectrum of a compound having one main peak absorbing below 300nm possibly contains a very simple conjugated system Instrumentation in UV-Visible Spectrophotometer UV-Visible spectrophotometer is a very simple to operate and able to perform quick qualitative as well as quantitative analysis.It is usuallay designed around _ve funda- mentals parts i.e. a radiation source,a monochromater(wavelength selector),a samplecell(cuvette),detector and a signal processor (readout device) for measuring the absorp- tion of uv or visible radiations.These components are typically integrated in a unique frame work to make spectrometers for chemical analysis.Two types of UV-Visible spec- trophotometers are generally in use:a _xed spectrophotometer with a single beam and a scanning spectrophotometer with double beams.Single beam spectrophotometers are highly sensitive devices and obtaining a spectrum requires measuring the transmittance of the sample and the blank at each wavelength separately.In the double beam spec- trophotometer,the light split into two parallel beams,each of which passes through a cell;one cell contains the sample dissolved in a solvent and the other cell contains the solvent alone.The detector measures the intensity of light transmitted through the sam- ple cell. Light source The intensity of radiation coming from the light source varies over the entire UV-Vis range.More than one type of source can be used in UV-Vis spectrophotmeter which au- tomatically swap lamps when scanning between the UV and visible range .A deutrium lamp is used for the wavelengths in the UV range,a tungsten lamp is used for the wave- lengths in the visible range and alternatively for the entire UV-Visible region,a xenon lamp can be used. Monochromator Its role is to spread the beam of light into its component wavelengths and a system of slits focuses the desired wavelength on the sample cell.The most widely used dispersing device is a prism or a grating made p of quartz because quartz is transparent throughout the UV range. Detector The detector converts the intensity of light reaching it to an electrical signal.It is by nature a single channel device.Two types of detector are used,either a photomultiplier tube or a semiconductor.For both of which the sensitivity depends upon the wavelength. QSAR and Drug design Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) (sometimes QSPR: quantitative structure-property relationship) is the process by which chemical structure is quanti- tatively correlated with a well de_ned process, such as biological activity or chemical reactivity. For example, biological activity can be expressed quantitatively as in the concentra- tion of a substance required to give a certain biological response. Additionally, when physicochemical properties or structures are expressed by numbers, one can form a math- ematical relationship, or quantitative structure-activity relationship, between the two. The mathematical expression can then be used to predict the biological response of other chemical structures. QSARs most general mathematical form is: * Activity = f(physiochemical properties and/or structural properties) Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) represent an attempt to corre- late structural or property descriptors of compounds with activities. These physico- chemical descriptors, which include parameters to account for hydrophobicity, topology, electronic properties, and steric e_ects, are determined empirically or, more recently, by computational methods. Activities used in QSAR include chemical measurements and biological assays. QSAR currently are being applied in many disciplines, with many pertaining to drug design and environmental risk assessment. Chromophore Organic compound mostly containing double bond is responsible to produce color and absorption of ultraviolet or visible radiations as single bond is not enough to do that but if many are present in conjugations,sharp color can produce. A single functional group or a collection of functional groups also capable for absorption and they also act as a chromophore. A complex molecule can contain more than one chromophore so the effect of conjugation on the chromophore is to shift the maximum absorption to a longer wavelength .i.e. a bathochromic shift or red shift appear with an increase in absorption intensity and the spectrum is strongly upset with respect to the superimposing effects of random chromophores. The more the number of carbon atoms on which the conjugated system is spreaded,the more the decrement in the difference between energy levels.and accounts large bathchromic effect. A very simple spectrum of a compound having one main peak absorbing below 300nm possibly contains a ve ry simple conjugated system such as diene or an enone whereas, if the spectrum is much mixed and also allocated in a visible region,then the molecule must contain chromophore having large red shift such as polyene ,polycyclic aromatic system etc. Solvent Effect Selection of solvent used in UV-visible spectroscopy is very important. The prime requirement for a solvent is that it should be transparent to radiation over full UV range and also not absorb UV radiations in the region of substance whose spectrum is actually analysed .Most of the organic solvents successfully meet that criteria and solvents without having any conjugtion are very convenient for this purpose.Among the solvents ,the water ,95% ethanol and hexane are most commonly used and are transparent in the full uv spectrum. Another valuable requirement for selecting a solvent is that it gives a nice spectrum of a set a absorption bands because polar solvent form hydrogen bonds with solute and the fine spectrum of the complex may vanish but this is not the case for non polar solvents where a fine spectrum often easily appears because of the absence of hydrogen bonding.Polar solvents also shows bathochromic effect which causes a decrease in electronic state. Asecond criteria for agood solvent is its effect on the fine strusture of an absorption band.Ano polar solvent doesnot hydrogen bond with the solute,and the spectrum of the solute closely approximate s the spectrum that would be produced in the gaseous state ,in which fine structure is often observed.In a polar solvent the hydrogen bonding forms a solute solvent comlex and the fine structure may disappear. Athird criteria for a good solvent is its ability to influence th

Sunday, October 13, 2019

How can we remove causes of hunger today Essay -- essays research pape

Q. How can we remove the causes of hunger in the world today? At the end of World War II public officials and scientists from all over the world predicted that, with advances in modern technology, it would be possible by the end of the century to end poverty, famine, and endemic hunger in the world. Today these optimistic projections have been replaced by hopelessness and resignation as perhaps one-fifth of the world's peoples live in absolute poverty with incomes of less than $700 a year. The United Nations estimates that around 830 million people in the world do not have adequate access to food. An estimated 24,000 people die from hunger or hunger related causes, three-fourths of which are children under the age of five. Moreover, hunger exists not only in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, but also in the richest nation on earth. Thirty-six million Americans do not have enough to eat, and the number is growing. In order to discuss eradication of hunger, we need firstly to identify some true causes. The immediate cause being improper food management; over population, lack of purchasing power, ignorance and unemployment are the issues that worsen the problem. Lot of people in this world is hungry because some people misuse and waste the world’s abundantly available food resources. The first and an obvious solution to the problem therefore is to stop this, and to distribute them among the starving population. World production of grain alone is over 1.5 billion tons, enough...

Saturday, October 12, 2019

Eriksons Psychosocial Theory :: Psychology Sociology Erikson Essays

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson is possibly the best known of Sigmund Freud’s many followers. He grew up in Europe and spent his young adult life under the direction of Freud. In 1933 when Hitler rose to power in Germany, Erikson emigrated to the United States and began teaching at Harvard University. His clinical work and studies were based on children, college students, victims of combat fatigue during World War two, civil rights workers, and American Indians. It was these studies which led Erikson to believe that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. Throughout this essay, Erikson’s psychosocial model will be explored, discussed and evaluated interms of it’s concepts, theories and assumptions. The theoretical underpinning will be discussed with reference to the nature versus nurture debate and also the continuity versus discontinuity argument. It will then be shown how Erikson has influenced the way psychologists view the importance of identity during adolescents. Firstly, however, Erikson’s work will be put alongside that of Freud’s to establish an understanding of the basis from which it came. Erikson’s psychosocial model was heavily influenced by Freud, and shares a number of central ideas. For example, both Freud and Erikson agree that every individual is born with a number of basic instincts, that development occurs through stages, and that the order of these stages is influenced by biological maturation (Sigelman, and Shaffer 1992). Erikson also believes, as did Freud, that personality has three components: the id, the ego, and the superego. Therefore it is fair to say that Erikson is a psychoanalytic theorist. However, Erikson does argue that social and cultural influences have a critical role in shaping human development, and less significance should be placed on the role of sexual urges. Freud did note however, that social agents such as parents should be regarded as important, but it is Erikson who highlights the forces within a much broader social environment, including peers, teachers and schools which are highly important according to Erikson. Erikson, then, moves more towards the ‘nurture’ side of the nature - nurture debate than did Freud, viewing nurture as equally important in development. This ‘nurture’ outlook highlights the emphasis on environmental forces within Erikson’s model. Experiences in life, changes achieved through learning, the influence of methods of child rearing, societal changes and culture all have an exceptionally important role on human development according to Erickson. In addition, Erikson’s theory encompasses the whole of the human life-span, outlining the stages that occur, which will be looked at more closely later on.

Friday, October 11, 2019

Nursing Effectivness Concept Paper Essay

Walker & Avant’s methodology (2005) is used to analyze the concept of the word effective; this provides clarity to the meaning of the concept and identifies its unique attributes, particularly in relation to medical treatment. Antecedents and consequences of presumed effective medical treatment are discussed followed by empirical referents, which aid in illuminating the concept of effectiveness. Assumedly, â€Å"effective† is an adjective most healthcare professionals and their patients would hope to use in describing the outcome of the treatment or the care provided. The purpose of this concept analysis is to understand that for physicians and nurses to provide truly effective treatment, it must attend to multiple needs of the patient, not just their illness. Not only is it important for healthcare providers to construct and implement a treatment plans, but also to involve patients in medical decision making about their treatment. To determine effectiveness, healthcare providers must assess how treatment of the illness effects the patient in addition to their own evaluation of treatment. The dictionary definitions of effective are (a) adequate to accomplish a purpose, producing the intended or expected result; (b) in operation or in force, functioning; (c) producing a deep or vivid impression; (d) prepared and available for service; and (e) a member of the armed forces fit for duty or active service (â€Å"Effective†, n.d. a). According to Stedman’s Medical Dictionary (2006), the medical definitions of effective are (a) the extent to which a treatment achieves its intended purpose; (b) A measure of the accuracy or success of a diagnostic or therapeutic technique when carried out in an average clinical environment. According to Wikipedia (n.d. b), the usage of effective includes (a) mathematics, can be used as a synonym of algorithmically computable; (b) physics, an effective theory is, similar to a phenomenological theory, a framework intended to explain certain effects without the claim that the theory correctly models the underlying processes; (c) heat transfer, effectiveness is a measure of the performance of a heat exchanger; (d) business/management, effectiveness relates to getting the right things done; (e) human–computer interaction, the accuracy and completeness of users tasks while using a system; and (f) medicine, effectiveness relates to how well a treatment works in practice. This concept analysis will focus on effectiveness in relation to treating an illness and patient outcome. As previously stated, it is important to consider how treatments can also have an effect on the patient. A patient’s illness must acutely be treated, but it is imperative to also set long term goals so the most effective and desired outcome can be achieved. Walker & Avant (2005) describe defining, or critical attributes as the characteristics that are most frequently associated with a concept. These attributes are key factors that must be present in defining the concept that is analyzed. Literature reviewed helped determine the characteristics attributed to the concept of effective in terms of nursing and medical treatment including, being free of disease or illness, decreased discomfort and suffering, scientific support, and improved quality of life. Another characteristic of effective nursing and medical treatment that should be considered is cost. Patients are sometimes informed about optional medical treatments that are available, but experimental and not yet approved by the FDA, nor covered by one’s medical insurance. There are many experimental treatments that have proven to be effective in curing illness but sadly, most cannot afford to pay for these treatments. This also applies if a person’s insurance does not cover a specific test, medicine, or treatment. A patient’s personal experience should also be taken into consideration; people with the same illness could receive the same therapy or treatment, but have different outcomes. An 11 year old boy presents to the emergency department with an obvious deformity to his left lower leg after falling off his bike, he is triaged and quickly seen by a physician for treatment. The physician puts a cast on his leg and informs the boy’s parents that his injury is not indicative of surgery and the bone should heal properly while casted. They are told to return in six weeks to have the cast removed and to evaluate the healing progression. The boy’s parents are then advised of activity restrictions, given a prescription for as needed pain medication and discharged home. They returned six weeks later and reported compliancy with the activity restrictions and he that only complained of pain the first couple days following the injury, which was managed well by the prescribed pain medication. The physician’s reassessment of the patient’s leg indicated optimal healing had occurred and the cast was removed, thus achieving the desired outcome. This case identifies that the patient’s pain was well managed and restrictions on activity were followed. The outcome identifies the patient is free of injury and discomfort, and quality of life was not affected, modeling all the critical attributes indicative of effective treatment. An 18 year old male is transported to a hospital via ambulance for an injury he sustained while playing in his high school’s football game. It was is reported to the healthcare team that he was tackled to the ground by an opposing player and Due to the risk of injury to his spinal cord and the patient complaining of sever back pain, radiological tests were performed. Tests showed in addition to the injury sustained during the game, he also suffered from some degree of spinal stenosis. The physicians explained a need for immediate treatment as it was imperative to surgically repair the damage to his spine by undergoing a spinal fusion. The physicians also inform them in order to achieve optimal healing and reduce the risk of further, irreversible long term damage, he will be unable to play football again. This news is very upsetting for the patient because not only is he unable to play again, it was his dream to make football a career and was already accepted to college on a football scholarship. This patient was discharged from the hospital a week after his surgery with outpatient physical therapy sessions if needed and a prescription for pain medication. The healthcare team explained to the patient, despite the possibility of mild back pain, the surgical treatment he underwent was effective. The concept of effective treatment related to this patient’s injury is that of a borderline case. Although the outcome of his treatment restricts his physical activity, healthcare providers were able to successfully treat his injury with surgical intervention. Pain medication was prescribed to decrease any discomfort or pain that may occur because from experience and scientific data, healthcare providers are able to recognize what treatments are proven successful to achieve the best outcome for the patient. A 17 year old girl, suffering from anorexia and bulimia, is admitted to the hospital for the fifth time in seven months. Every admission, including this one, she has received enteral feedings to improve caloric intake and hemodynamic status. The psychological status of this patient is also evaluated by a hospital therapist in addition to ongoing outpatient treatment for her eating disorder. The patient’s parents voice their concerns to the healthcare team about her deteriorating health status and frustrations with outpatient therapy not being effective. They are concerned because even though her health status improves with the treatment she receives in the hospital, outpatient therapy is not helping her maintain it. The physicians recognize with her parent’s concerns and agree she needs intensive therapy from an inpatient facility that specializes in eating disorders. However, the patient’s insurance will not cover extended inpatient treatment and is too expensive for her parents to pay out of pocket, so they must continue treatment that has been seemingly ineffective to her recovery. The outcome in this scenario is that of a contrary case of effective nursing or medical treatment. Although this patient is always acutely treated, she is not free of her disease because she continues to purge food or not eat at all. Her quality of life is also effected due to multiple hospital admits and her daily struggle with food. This patient’s outpatient therapy shows to be ineffective and sadly she continues to suffer with a n eating disorder. It is essential to discuss related framework to identify and clarify the meaning of an analyzed concept. Walker & Avant (2005) define antecedents as events that must occur prior to the occurrence of the concept. In order for a therapy or treatment to be effective, there first must be a person with an injury or illness who seeks medical care. After an individual has gone to an emergency department, urgent care, or physician’s office, they are evaluated by a healthcare team that includes a physician and nurse. Then, the healthcare team diagnosis’s the patient before deciding on the type of treatment warranted to treat their injury or illness. It’s imperative to include the patient in deciding treatment as â€Å"active patient involvement in medical decision making improves their quality of life and outcomes from treatment† (Egger, 1995. p. 384). When a type of treatment has been determined, it may require the patient to legally consent. The patient’s healthcare team is responsible for informing them about the treatment and any associated risks that may occur as a result. Once the patient’s treatment is completed they will be evaluated by the healthcare team, thus resulting in a patient outcome. The consequences, or events that occur as a result of, are the outcomes of a concept (Walker & Avant 2011). The consequences effective medical treatment are improved health status, decreased need for health services, increased patient satisfaction, and healing. All of these outcomes are desired by the patient as well as the healthcare team. These outcomes can have a huge influence on healthcare by providing data for healthcare providers and individuals researching treatment options. â€Å"Outcomes are the ultimate test of the effectiveness of medical care. Patient outcomes are clinical endpoints, functional status, general well-being, and satisfaction with medical care† (Coyle & Battles, 1999. p. 5). Empirical referents can be described as actual phenomena that by their actual existence or presence demonstrated the occurrence of a concept, in which is proven useful in instrument development (Walker & Avant, 2005). It is important to note that empirical referents measure and relate to the defining attributes of effective, not just the concept itself (Walker & Avant, 2011). Since effective (medical treatment) is subjective as well as objective, it is essential to consider both phenomena that occur with this concept. Improved health status is the most significant phenomena associated with effective health treatment, both subjectively and objectively, relating to the attribute of being free from illness or injury and quality of life. The healthcare team objectively considers a patient’s treatment as effective if it has cured illness, resolved injury, or improved quality of life. Scientific research provide healthcare providers with support in determining what medical treatment has proven effective. For patients, aside from being free of illness or injury, quality of life is typically the most important. There are many different treatments that cure illnesses, but sometimes alter a person’s quality of life. A patient can be in remission from cancer by receiving radiation and chemotherapy, but also causing a negative impact on their functionality, appearance, and general well-being. In order to determine how treatment has effected a patient’s quality of life, healthcare providers must formulate their own opinion based off of their knowledge of the patient and assess how the patient feels the treatment has impacted their life. Lastly, a patient’s use of medical services will be decreased or not needed at all. This analysis of the concept of effective medical treatment is defined as an outcome producing the intended or desired outcome. This concept has also shown to be complex, being that it is subjective as well as objective. Healthcare providers and patients must agree that the treatment was effective to the illness or injury. Effective medical treatment is achieved after a person with an illness or injury seeks medical attention and receives treatment for it. A review of literature on this concept concludes that to improve quality of life and patient satisfaction, the healthcare team must integrate the patient’s values and preferences about the intended treatment or therapy (Egger, 1995). References Coyle, Y. M., & Battles, J. B. (1999). Using antecedents of medical care to develop valid quality of care measures. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 11(1), 5-12. Effective. (n.d. a). In Definitions.net. Retrieved from http://www.definitions.net/definition/effective Effective. (n.d. b). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective Egger, M. (1995). Systematic reviews in health care: Meta-analysis in context. London: Wiley. Stedman’s Medical Dictionary. (2006). Effectiveness. Retrieved from http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary/effectivness Walker, L., & Avant, K. (2005). Strategies for theory construction in nursing. (4th ed.). United States of America: Prentice Hall. Walker, L., & Avant, K. (2011). Strategies for theory construction in nursing. (5th ed.). United States of America: Prentice Hall. View as multi-pages